Week 2 discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Week 2 discussion - Assignment Example 239), as well as balancing its flexibility. One of the methods of creating a balance between the need of flexibility with the need for stringent order for purposes of creating a culture of innovation is for an organization to reconsider its main aim of operation, and define its corporate objectives (Shehabuddeen, 2007). As the company experiences growth in its operations, it tends to employ new people, who come with a different mindset. This people have a higher tolerance of risk, as opposed to the old employees, who are stable and familiar with the business operations. To reconcile this people, the company must define its objectives, and create mechanisms that will ensure employees adhere to the rules and objectives of the organizations. The organization must restructure its goals, and its culture, and redefine the responsibility of older members of the organization, for purposes of encouraging innovation and flexibility in the business set up (Frankline et al, 2009). To create a balance between the need for flexibility and the need for stringent measures of a business organization, the organization needs to initiate a change in its recruitment process (Patel and Patel, 2008). It must create new methods of assigning duties, and change the manner of interaction within the organization. It must create a new reward policy that encourages innovation, as well as the need of stringency in the business set up. The traits to look for in recruitment are people with a right mind set, people willing to challenge the status quo, and individuals willing to learn and adapt a challenging environment. Finally, the organization needs review its internal and external operations. This is by creating a managerial group whose role and purpose is to communicate the expectations of the company to its employees (Shehabuddeen, 2007). This group will encourage innovation, and develop ways and methods of balancing the need of

Technical Writing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Technical Writing - Essay Example Noted above, the language is used positively because it is not wordy or produced in mass. The point is simply put as its intent is to be used by a student who needs to know where he or she is going on short notice. A minute glance is all a student should need in order to find the desired location. The visual of the map along with the explanation of the symbols is both positive and negative. Positive due to the fact that it gives a student an idea of where things are, but negative because it takes a student longer to learn what the symbols mean. The design of the guide is overall effective, but there is a redundancy in the repeating telephone number at the bottom of each section. If you have any further questions about the Smithville College Campus guide please do not hesitate to contact me. Thank you. Part 2 The tone of the writing changes quite dramatically from the first draft to the final draft. The wordiness amped the situation, drew attention to the negativity that was performed rather than focusing on the solution at hand. Once the extra â€Å"anger and punishment† measures were reduced, the memo became a short and sweet response to the copier situation by bringing attention to the solution. â€Å"I wish therefore to inform all concerned-those who have abused policy or will be abusing it- that their behavior cannot and will not be tolerated† is an excessively wordy sentence. Sam eliminates this by simple stating in his new draft, â€Å"In the past we have not encouraged personnel to use them for such purposes because of the costs involved.† It is clear that the informality is seen in the first draft because Sam’s tone is frustrated and bitter. He is flagging the problem, which makes it worse by making it sound informal. However, by moving past the problem to the solution, he gains formality. He also maintains a level of power by staying out of the problem, i.e. not acting biased, in his final draft when he makes it short. By pr esenting the solution (they will literally pay for their actions), he improves his tactfulness. The website URL: http://www.newyorkcity.com/ is particularly effective through visual, design and language. The pictures are small, but appealing and there aren’t too many of them. The skyline of New York is seen on the very top to indicate the correct website followed by a page to add hotel information, which is inviting. They want to make it easy for the tourists to navigate their website with links to hotels, deals, activities, restaurants, and other attractions. If the pictures do are not what the browser wants, there are links in alphabetical order at the bottom of the page to please everyone. Also, the visuals that are chosen were a design-like action because they show the hottest attractions, i.e. Broadway plays. Also, the descriptions carry no more than two-three sentences to avoid wordiness that would lose the audience. Reference Page Picket, A. N., Laster, A. A., & Staple s, K. E. (2001). Technical English: Writing, Reading, and Speaking (8th ed., pp. 45-46). New York, NY: Addison Wesley

Methods Of Electricity Production Engineering Essay

Methods Of Electricity Production Engineering Essay Electricity plays a major part in our society today. It is used in our hospitals, in our banks, in our homes, and in our cars. No matter what we do, we couldnt live without it. But all this electricity doesnt just appear at when we need it, we must create it. All over the world, there is millions of electricity generating stations. Some of these are small, others huge. Some of the stations run on the power of fire and steam, while others run on the power of the wind or falling water. Some even use the power of the sun alone to generate electricity. But with so many different ways to produce electricity, how do we know which ways are the most efficient and the most environmentally effective? Task 2 Electromagnetic induction is a phenomenon that occurs when a magnetic field intersects a piece of metal, most commonly a piece of wire, which can be affected by magnets. The most common method to induce is to create a magnetic field in such a way that the field intersects a coil of wire. This can be done in multiple ways, although the main two ways are to either pass a magnet through the center of a coil of wire, or to move a coil of wire in a magnetic field. However, if both the coil of wire and the magnet are both stationary, no electric current will be produced. The circuit must also be closed for a current to flow. The most efficient way to produce a current is to rotate a coil in a magnetic field. There is three ways that the amount of power generated by electromagnetic magnetic induction can be increased: Increasing the strength of the magnetic field. Increasing the amount of turns in the coil that is being affected by the magnetic field. Increasing the speed at which the magnetic field intersects the coil. In most power stations however, the generators used spin the magnets, or in most cases, electromagnets, around the wire. This enables a greater amount of coils to be used without the need to rotate a greater mass. The stations use turbines to rotate the magnets or coils. To rotate the turbines, a power source is needed. There are four main power sources that are used: Coal Burning Coal burning power stations use coal that has been mined out of the earth. This coal is burnt to create heat. The heat makes water evaporate into steam. As the steam rises, it hits rotors which spin the turbines. Nuclear Reactions Nuclear reactors work in somewhat the same way as a coal burning power station. These power stations use the power of a nuclear reaction to create the heat needed to boil the water that then turns to steam, which then turns the turbines. When the water is heated however, it becomes radioactive. This means that the water must be kept in a separate chamber to the water that will turn to steam. The radioactive water heats the clean water by means of conduction. Wind Wind farms, as they are commonly called, use the power of the wind to rotate massive rotor blades. These rotor blades turn a shaft that is connected to a generator, thus producing electricity. Gravity The most common of power stations that utilize gravity are called hydro power stations. These use falling water to turn the turbines at the base of a mountain. As the water comes down the mountain, it is pulled by the force of gravity, making it travel at high speeds, which turns the turbines faster, which makes more electricity. Another power source that is used to create electricity is the energy produced from the Sun. Solar panels collect solar radiation from the sun and actively converts that energy to electricity. Solar panels are comprised of several individual solar cells. These solar cells function similarly to large semiconductors and utilize a large-area junction diode. When the solar cells are exposed to sunlight, the junction diodes convert the energy from sunlight into usable electrical energy. The energy generated from photons striking the surface of the solar panel allows electrons to be knocked out of their orbits and released, and electric fields in the solar cells pull these free electrons in a directional current, from which metal contacts in the solar cell can generate electricity. The conversion of sunlight to usable electrical energy is called the Photovoltaic Effect. After the electricity has been generated, it needs to be transmitted around the country. When electricity passes through a wire, some of the energy is lost as heat energy. In small devices, this is generally ignored because the wires are short enough for the energy that is lost as heat to be quite minimal. When the length of the wire increases, the amount of energy that is lost as heat also increases. This can be a problem when the wires are spanning thousands of kilometers. The reason for the lost of energy as heat is because of the current. This means that current is proportional to heat lost. Since this is the case, if the current is dropped to almost zero, then the energy lost as heat will also drop to almost zero. This can be done with the use of transformers. Transformers work on the law of magnetic induction. This is done by passing a magnetic field through a primary coil of wire. The magnetic field produced by the current can be used to create a current in a secondary coil. If there is twice the amount of coils in the secondary coil as there is in the primary coil. The current will be halved and vice versa. When the current is lowered, the process is transformed is referred to as a step-up transformer, and when the current is doubled, it is a step-down transformer. When the current is changed, the voltage is also changed. This is because current is inversely proportion to the voltage. This means if the current is halved, the voltage is doubled. This means when a step-up transformer halves the current, it doubles the voltage. To get the current as low as possible, the current must be brought up to around two hundred and twenty thousand volts. Task 3 Aim: To research the amount of energy three different types of power plants produce and compare their environmental impacts. Method: Three main power plants from within the state of Queensland were chosen to be examined. The plants chosen were; Tarong coal burning power plant, Wivenhoe hydroelectric power station, and the Hillcrest Christian College solar panel power plant. Research on these specific power plants was completed by using in-class and as homework. When all the needed research was acquired, the data was examined and a conclusion was drawn on which plant provided the most power, which plant was the most environmentally friendly, and which plant had the least intensity+. Results: Three sets of data have been collected: Tarong Power Station*# Date Tons CO2 MWh Energy Intensity 2000 9,196,047 7,913,802 2,324 2010 9,841,752 8,523,634 2,309 2020 9,956,845 8,633,139 2,307 Wivenhoe Power Station*#^ Date Tons CO2 MWh Energy Intensity 2000 0 1,052,437 0 2010 0 973,419 0 2020 603,438 2,109,812 572 Hillcrest Power Plant Date Tons CO2 MWh Energy Intensity 1-Jul-09 0 0.5353 0 1-Aug-09 0 0.7521 0 1-Sep-09 0 0.8029 0 1-Oct-09 0 0.7752 0 1-Nov-09 0 0.7237 0 1-Dec-09 0 0.6808 0 1-Jan-10 0 0.7036 0 1-Feb-10 0 0.5804 0 2009/2010 (Average) 0 0.69425 0 +: Pounds of CO2 emitted per megawatt-hour of electricity produced. *: The data collected also was coupled with a projected output for the next decade ^: The power station plans on a future upgrade that will produce carbon pollution #: Average decade output This data was put in the corresponding tables for comparison. Discussion: By looking at the data above it two main points can be made: Energy Output When the Tarong and Wivenhoe power stations are compared, it can be observed that the Tarong coal burning station produces a far larger amount of energy. It must be kept in mind that the Tarong station is a far larger station when compared to either of the other to stations examined, with the Tarong station having a maximum power output of over 1400MW, where as the Wivenhoe station has a maximum power output of only 500MW, and the Hillcrest plants power output depends on the intensity of the sunlight it receives. Even if the maximum output for the Wivenhoe station was over three times the size, putting the maximum output to 1500MW, theoretically, it would still be producing less energy than the Tarong station. It would also be highly unfeasible to achieve the same energy output with the Hillcrest plant as the maximum power output would have to be increased by at least sixteen million times. This puts the Tarong coal burning station as the most economically effective power station out of the three. CO2 Emissions At the current date, both the Wivenhoe station and the Hillcrest plant are producing no carbon emissions at all, where as the Tarong station is producing a very high amount of CO2. This puts the Wivenhoe station and the Hillcrest plant on equal ground in this aspect. In the future however, the Wivenhoe station is planning on installing upgrades to their station which, presumably, will force the plant to start giving off CO2 emissions. Up until these upgrades are made, the two stations are on the same level with CO2 emissions, but as soon as the upgrades are made, the Hillcrest solar power plant will be the most environmentally effective out of the three stations researched. Even though all the power stations that were examined are the few main ways that energy is generated in our current society, there are many other ways that the energy that we use gets generated. These consist of power stations that use means of; Biomass energy, wind energy, nuclear energy, tidal energy, combustion energy. These ways are examined in more depth below: Biomass Energy Biomass energy uses the biodegradable waste products of our everyday lives, such as plant waste or animal matter, to create either a thermal or chemical conversion. During these conversions, the matter undergoes chemical reactions that produce either heat or other chemicals that can be used in other items. This method of green energy is very environmentally friendly as it takes the form of what typically happens in our natural world, decomposition for example. Wind Energy The use of giant propellers to catch the force of the wind and use that force to turn a generator is the way wind turbines work. In theory the idea of using the power of something as ambient and as reliable as the wind is one of the most environmentally friendly methods to create electricity that is around. This is because there is no byproducts of any sort and the wind that is used can never be depleted. The major problem with using this as an energy source is the strength of wind needed to spin the propellers. This is because although there is wind everywhere in our world, the strength of this wind, on the most part, is not always strong enough to rotate the propellers due to their immense weight. Nuclear Energy Nuclear energy is one of the most dangerous forms of generating energy that we have in our current society. When it is harnessed properly and efficiently, it is also one of our most effective ways of producing energy. The basic concept of a nuclear reactor is similar to that of a coal burning station, to create heat to make steam to turn turbines. One major downfall with these power stations is the waste the produce. This waste is not CO2, but is radioactive waste that, if dispersed of correctly, would provide our society with a clean and efficient way to generate power, although this is not the case in the present time. Until there is a way to dispose of the nuclear waste efficiently, nuclear power will not become our primary source of power. Tidal Energy Tidal energy is a form of hydro power that converts the energy of the tides into a useable form of energy. Although this method is not widely used, it has great potential for the future of power generation. This is because the tides are far more predictable than the wind and solar energy. Tides are so predictable in fact; that we can tell exactly what they will be doing in two hundred years. The principle behind tidal power is the same as that of wind power. Underwater propellers are used to capture the energy of the flowing water, which is then converted to power by large turbines. This form of energy is just as clean as wind energy, but also has the additional benefit of not creating a poor spectacle as most of the generator is hidden underwater, instead of out in the open. Combustion Energy Also called mechanical energy, this is the act of using natural gasses or conventional fuels to power a combustion engine which then is used to rotate a turbine. This method is most commonly seen in small or backup generators that are made for private or commercial use. Two side effects of this type of energy is the noise that is made during combustion, and the byproduct of CO2. On the most part, these generators are used mainly in the form of small, portable types. This is because the forces that would need to be dealt with on a large scale generator are quite large and can be potentially hazardous. Task 4 Conclusion: When all the data is examined, hydroelectric power stations proved to be not only the most environmentally safe, equal with solar power, producing zero CO2 emissions, but it also was able to decent a fair amount of power. Even though the coal burning power station produced a lot more power, almost an eightfold on what hydro station produced, the hydro station produced zero percent of the emissions that the coal burning station did. In this respect, if the hydro station was to be increased to eight times its current size, theoretically, our society would be provided with more energy than the coal burning station produced, along with no emissions or byproducts. In contrast, the solar power plant also gave off no emissions, although the amount power produced was quite unsubstantial in comparison. As discussed earlier, the solar power plant would have to create eighteen times the amount of energy that it currently is producing to be a contender in power generation, but doing this would m ean that the size of area needed would be on the same scale of increase. This is feasible in terms of installing solar panels on every roof in our major cities for example, although the costs of doing such a thing would be far greater than that of upgrading the hydro power plant. It is recommended that the use of hydroelectric power stations is continued and their usage is increased. This is not only a one of the more environmentally friendly types of renewable energy, but it is also one of the more reliable according to the research completed. This method does not produce byproducts of any kind and does not make waste of any of the resources used in the production of power that is generated.

The Category of the Individual Essay -- Sociology Sociological Papers

The Category of the Individual In The Order of Things, Michel Foucault argues that there is a "pure experience of order and its modes of being" (Foucault xxi), that order exists and that it is necessary. Foucault is concerned with language because it is a mode by which we maintain order in the world, and according to his argument, what we should fear are heterotopias, which "undermine language," "make it impossible to name this and that," "shatter or tangle common names," and "destroy 'syntax' in advance" (Foucault xviii). When Foucault refers to 'syntax,' he is not just talking about our method of constructing sentences but "also that less apparent syntax which causes words and things (next to and also opposite one another) to 'hold together'" (Foucault xviii). In other words, there is need for us to take into account how the things in our world are related to each other. One of the ways in which we do this is through the method of categorization, which allows us to organize our world according to similarities an d differences. However, Foucault stresses us to be cautious, to realize that "we shall never succeed in defining a stable relation of contained to container between each of these categories and that which includes them all" (Foucault xvii). An all-inclusive category does not exist; it cannot exist. Foucault insists on the need to pay attention to what is present in the "empty space, the interstitial blanks separating all these entities from one another" (Foucault xvi). It is not that language is inadequate; it is just that we must be conscious of not only what is stated but also what is not directly stated, what is contained inside language and what is outside language. When we organize the things in the world in... ...gle words. I don't believe in 'sadness,' 'joy,' or 'regret.' Maybe the best proof that language is patriarchal is that it oversimplifies feeling" (Eugenides 217). We must realize that the only "normal" that exists is what is "normal" to the individual, to us. Our categories do not define us; we define ourselves. Through our experiences, we create identities that are unique to us, and we, as "others," must learn to value our individual experiences because that is where the answer is, where it always has been. Works Cited: Eugenides, Jeffrey. Middlesex. New York: Picador, 2002. Foucault, Michel. The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences. New York: Vintage Books. Moraga, Cherrà ­e. "The Breakdown of the Bicultural Mind." Names We Call Home: Autobiography on Racial Identity. Eds. Becky Thompson and Sangeeta Tyagi. New York: Routledge.

Does Divorce of Parents Harm Children?

Divorce has become prevalent, but what are its effects on children? Many researchers began studying this question in the 1970s, and they have learned a great deal about children and divorce. One thing researchers have learned is that we must distinguish between children's initial or short-term reactions to marital disruption and their long-term (more than two years) adjustment. Children's long-term reactions vary greatly, depending on how the parents respond to the child during and after the breakup. In particular, the most important factors that shape long-term adjustment are (1) the amount of parental conflict children are exposed to and (2) the quality of parenting or childrearing competence they receive. In addition to these two factors, children's reactions are affected by social or environmental factors such as living in a neighborhood with high crime and violence. Economic factors are an important aspect of divorce, as most single-parent mothers have more economic stress and can provide fewer resources and opportunities for their children following divorce. Economic stress leads to increasing family mobility and an unwanted decrease in kinship networks and family support systems. This becomes especially problematic when it deprives families of grandparents and other kin who can help parents cope in the aftermath of divorce. Yes: Judith S. Wallerstein, from â€Å"Growing up in the divorced family† Clinical Social Work Journal (Winter 2005) Clinical psychologist Judith Wallerstein argues not only that children are harmed when their parents’ divorce but also that these negative side effects continue into their adult lives. Wallerstein claims that adolescents of divorce families often become involved with drugs, alcohol, and sexual activity earlier than adolescents of intact families. And once they are adults, she claims that these children suffer from acute anxiety when attempting to love and form permanent relationships. Parent- Child relationships not only change at the breakup but continue to change during the years to follow. When this bond is broken by divorce, a wide range of passions spills over into all domains of the family. These emotions, as noted, have the power to derail parent-child relationships that were in place during the intact family. One immediate consequence of these chronic uncertainties in the post-divorce family is the eruption of persistent anxiety in the child, setting into motion a hyper vigilant tracking of each parent. They grow up insecure. They worry about another loss or sudden change in their family or household. They worry for many years about their parents’ well being. The central finding of our study is that, adulthood, the experience of having been through parental divorce as a child impacts detrimentally on the capacity to love and be loved within lasting, committed relationship. At young adulthood when love, sexual intimacy and commitment and marriage take center stage, children of divorce haunted by the ghosts of their parents’ divorce and terrified that the same fate awaits them. In addition to overcoming their fear of failure, they have a great deal to learn about the give and take of intimate living with another person, about how to deal with differences and how to resolve conflicts. Children recover, typically within a 2 year period, and then resume their normal developmental progress, if three conditions obtain: 1) the parents are able to settle their differences without fighting; 2) the financial arrangements are fair and; 3) the child has continued contact with both parents over the years that follow. Our findings are that where parents got along both maintained caring relationships with their children of the first marriage, undiminished by their post-divorce relationships, and where both parents were doing reasonably well in their personal lives, the childhood and adolescence of the children were better protected. Personal Evaluation: Are people just too selfish to make commitments or care about others anymore? Have people become too lazy or unwilling to work on the problems that exist in every relationship? I believe people still are capable of making mistakes. It's not that divorce is such a bad thing†¦ it's more that people are making the mistake of rushing into marriage for whatever reason and finally coming to grips with reality. Divorce is not questioned, in my opinion, when one of the spouses is abusive an adulterer, or other legally or morally wrong issues. I believe that divorce can harm children. However, I also believe that God can heal those wounds and He can teach them how to live healthy lives. In my opinion, divorce leaves a mark. Like the books says: â€Å"†¦ impacts detrimentally on the capacity to love and be loved within lasting, committed relationship. At young adulthood when love, sexual intimacy and commitment and marriage take center stage, children of divorce haunted by the ghosts of their parents’ divorce and terrified that the same fate awaits them. † I do agree with what the book says. I also come from a broken family and it’s been hard to come to the place where I know and believe in commitment of marriage and love. In my case, my adoptive family had to do a lot with my healing process and the role model they were to me. A loss of family identity often makes one feel inadequate, inferior or incomplete. And that’s how I felt at the beginning but the truth of the matter is; none of us are, whether we come from a broken home or not. Bibliography: Slife, Brent. Taking Sides- Clashing views on Psychological Issues. FIFTEENTH ed. Boston: McGraw Hill Companies, 2006. Newton, Lee. â€Å"Divorce is like a Death in the Family. † About. com. 1 Mar. 2009

Environmental protection Essay

Our earth is our home, so if we want to protect our home we should protect our environment from harmful effects of human activity. Some of these activities cause pollution. Pollution now is a very important problem. Some of these problem are : the ozone holes, global warming ( or green-house effect), acid rain †¦ The ozone layer is a layer of gases which stop harmful radiation from the sun protecting the earth. Recent research shows that there is a hole in part of the ozone layer which is caused by smoke from factories, car exhaust fumes, aerosol cans ’cause they contain CFC. Global warming is an increase in world temperature caused by an increase in carbon dioxide. Acid rain is rain that contains dangerous chemicals, this is caused by smoke from factories. Another problem is poisons in food. Farmer soften spray chemicals in crops to safe them from pests. These chemicals are called pesticides. Scientists have found that pesticides often end up in our food and they can cause health problems – especially for kids. The seas are in danger. They are filled with poison : industrial, chemical, nuclear waste. Every ten minutes one kind of animal, plant or insect dies out for ever. And if nothing is done our earth will die in about 30 years from now. So what can we do to protect our environment ? I think that we should recycle our used things, we should plant more trees, we should not waste resources but try save them, we also must make smoke from factories and car’s fumes more clean, we must not dump industrial waste to seas and rivers †¦Now people are beginning to realize that environmental problems are not somebody else’s. They make different organization, whose aim is conservation. For example † GREEN PEACE † , † FRIEND OF THE EARTH † and others. Everyday millions people from all over the world do everything to protect our envir onment , and they need for our help. I think we ought to help them , just to make our future better.

Japans Economic Struggle essays

Japan's Economic Struggle essays Although compared to the United States, Japan only the size of California has been a country with a lot of power. Japan has been competitive with the United States concerning technology. From its many ups and downs throughout its history, Japan was able to become a predominately powerful country with a great industrial strength attacking the US with its better quality television and cars. Now in 2000, Japan has been going through what many call a ten-year recession. Many ask why a country that was once so powerful could just fall? Japan has been showing very little growth in its economy, and seems as though its not getting out of its recession. In the 1990s a hasty withdraw by North American and European investors from Asias currency, real estate, and stock markets caused an economic crisis in several Asian nations, including Japan. This lead to a steady decrease in economic growth, until the economy was actually shrinking. This is the bulk of the current Japanese economic crisis. Japan has always been a very segregated country, completely cutoff from foreign influence since the time of the Emperor. Japans crisis, many say started about ten years ago. No one really thought Japan could be in this kind of economic crisis. It seemed as though Japan was doing well, not only economically or socially but also technologically. They were coming out with new inventions left and right. They had great televisions and great automobiles, which sold extremely well in the US. Unfortunately this was a front, Japan was not doing as well as everyone thought, not only were they in an economic recession but they were also doing socially terrible. Statistics shown in the New York Times demonstrated that Japans economy grew only about 0.2 percent in the third quarter. What does this mean to Japan? Japan is teetering between growth and recession, mostly recession due to the fact that it has done such little gro...

What Is the Right Supply Chain

What Is the Right Supply Chain Functional products are those staples bought by individuals in a broad range of retail outlets. They include things like groceries stores as well as gas stations. In real sense such products do not undergo major changes over time.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on What Is the Right Supply Chain specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Their demand predictability is far much stable, apart from having life cycles that are long. As a result of these properties, such functional products invite lots of competition which at the end leads to low profit margins. On the other hand, innovative products are those products which have the ability of giving clients extra reasons for buying them. However innovative products have life cycles that are short as a result of imitation by competitors, apart from having volatile demands. This means that their demand changes from time to time hence demand prediction is very difficult. Those organiza tions engaged in innovative products experience high profit margins as compared to those engaged in functional products. This is because; there are higher risks when dealing with innovative products than dealing with functional products. An efficient supply chain for functional products means that the primary objective of the supply chain is to supply efficient and predictable demands at the lowest costs possible. In addition the manufacturing processes should also be aiming at maintaining an average utilization rate that is very high. Nevertheless, inventory strategies should also have the ability of generating high turns, as well as minimizing inventory in the entire chain. Moreover the lead-time focus should be looking at ways of shortening lead time without increasing the operation costs. Another thing meant by efficient supply chain is selecting suppliers with the aim of reducing costs, as well as improving the product quality. Last but not least, efficient supply chain means h aving a product design strategy that minimizes costs, but maximizes performance. On the other hand, having a responsive supply chain for innovative products means; having a quick response to uncertain demands with the aim of minimizing stock-outs, obsolete inventories as well as forced markdowns. It also means having a manufacturing focus that deploys excess buffer capacity to ensure that products are manufactured just before demand is materialized. In addition, it means using inventory strategies that have the ability of providing buffer to excess stocks of either parts or finished products. Moreover, a responsive supply chain for innovative products means investing so much in factors that may reduce lead times. Nonetheless, the approach of selecting suppliers should aim at increasing speed, improving quality as well flexibility when responding to demand uncertainties. Last but not least, it also means employing modular design in postponing product differentiation for a long period of time, to ensure that it has a longer life cycle.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More A personal computer is one product that belongs to the lower left hand cell (box) that is, innovative product that uses responsive supply chain. This is because; computer companies can replace mainframe technologies with personal computers which at the end reduce the lead time, though the process can be expensive, but the main objective is reducing lead time. In addition, personal computers are very innovative in a manner that they can be sold at a premium price to generate more profits to cover the costs and uncertainties involved in responsive supply chains. Moreover personal computers have been designed in a manner that there are no frequent introduction of new computer offers, few varieties and very high profit margins.

A cellular network

A cellular network A cellular network is a radio network made of number of radio cells, each severed by fixed positioned based station. These cells stations cover several different areas and provide large radio coverage. In order for this to happen a variable number of portable transceivers can be used in any cell and moved through one cell during transmission. The use of multiple cells means that if the distributed transceivers are mobile and moving from one point to another point they should change also from cell to cell. This mechanism could be different according to the type of network and change of circumstances. In this case clear coordination between base station and mobile station is must in order to avoid communication interruption. The most common example of cellular Network is a cell or mobile phone, which is a portable telephone that could be dialled or receives calls through base station or transmitting tower. Radio waves transfer signal to and from mobile phone. The coverage area of serv ice provider sometime is split into small cells in order to prevent signal losses and also a large number of active phones in the area. The range of signals could be different in cities and rural areas. All base stations are connected to mobile phone switches centre, which connect to a public telephone network or to another mobile company switch. As the mobile consumer moves from one cell area to another cell, the switch automatically commands the handset and a cell site with a stronger signal (reported by each handset) to switch to a new radio channel (frequency). When the handset responds through the new cell site, the exchange switches the connection to the new cell site. Modern cell phones networks use cell as radio frequencies are limited, shared resource, base stations and handsets change frequency and use low power transmitters in order that limited number of radio frequency can be used at the same time by many users with less interferences. To distinguish signals from a vari eties of different transmitters, frequency division multiple access (FDMA) and code division multiple access (CDMA) has been developed. Advantage of cellular Network over other alternative solutions is: Increase capacity. Power usage reduced. Huge coverage area. Interference from other signals reduced. Reference paper 10 The evolution of the cellular Network started to flourish during the last years in which several different systems were developed; as a result we have first generation (1G), second generation (2G), third generation (3G) cellular networks and the trend is continuously increasing. The first generation (1G) was used from 1970-1980 and now is retired. In 1990 the second generation (2G) of Networks were launched such as Global System for Mobile communications (GSM), Personal Communications Service (PCS), and Integrated Digital Enhanced Network (IDEN) and so on. The second generation (2G) of networks replaced the (1G) and became very popular with digital processing, enabl ing wireless transmission of voice as well as data and have different Variety of new features such as a Push to Talk, Short Messaging service(SMS), caller ID, conference calling, voice mail, email messaging and so on.

Credible Ethics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Credible Ethics - Essay Example That is, being not irascible. In this case, it is a deficiency. It would, as well, be a vice if one get too angry and, therefore, irascible. In this case, it is in excess. What would be a virtue would entail being mild. That is, not being deficient of anger or having excess anger, but the mean. Aristotle is correct to state that virtue is a transition between two extremes, deficiency and excess. This is because moral virtues differ from intellectual virtues. Taking moral virtues from this perspective puts emphasis on the notion of the soul. The view brings the soul close to the body and refutes the ground that the soul is independent of the body. It emphasizes on the three components of the soul (passions, faculties and characters). In Aristotle’s view, the ability to control desires constitutes (moral) virtue (Fieser 36). For, instance, Aristotle does not praise or direct blames to people for experiencing anger as an emotion. He rather tends to praise the notion that characters only experience anger only when it is necessary, probably by situations that prevail. It, therefore, provides that virtue do not link with the capabilities of the

Bussiness communication Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Bussiness communication - Assignment Example She is working for our store for the last three months and is an hourly employee. A recent disruption occurred due to which our Company faced a considerable loss. Karl Martin, the manager of the store, informed me about Ms. Jackson’s late arrival. He stated that Ms. Jackson was one and a half hour late to work without informing any senior staff member. Several of our regular customers who went in to get their morning coffee complained that the store was closed. There was an overall loss of twenty customers and the company lost a hundred of dollars because of Ms. Jackson’s irresponsible behavior at work today. I myself went to the store two hours later and Ms. Jackson did not made any efforts to inform me. The recording of the CCTV footage shows that she did arrived late at work. I discussed this issue with Mr. Martin who himself was perplexed to have witnessed such disruptive behavior by his employee. We have thoroughly assessed the situation as the decision to be made is precarious. This situation has presented us with limited options. As the store has newly opened, and is currently short on staff, we cannot dismiss Ms. Jackson for her mistake. There is only one applicant, Jerry Wright, who is not well-recommended. We are unwilling to hire him as he does not have a worthy track record and is not quite reliable for this job. Hiring new employees would not be a wise decision either, because the company would have to go through the process of training the employees which would be costly. In addition, we are not sure of the availability of new employees who may be willing to work in the store. This has left me to take a valid decision to let Ms. Jackson continue with her services. I have pondered about this situation and the scenario has presented me to consider the valuable dedication with which Anna Jackson has worked. I personally feel that she would be facing some personal problem

Company law Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Company law - Coursework Example Dissolution of a company can be voluntary or through winding up. Voluntary liquidation of a  company  occurs when the shareholders of a company come to a consensus,  pass  a resolution saying that they have agreed to  dissolve  the company. On the other hand, the court may  give  out an  order  for the winding up of a company commonly done at the behest of a creditor who has not been paid.  According to Ahmadu and Robert (425) global trends have led companies to be cautious in the way their operations  are halted. Question 1 Liquidation of any company entails the winding up of financial statements in order to  create  time  for effective dismantling of the structure of the company and  help  in  fairly  distributing the assets of the company to its creditors.  Liquidation provides the only  true  way of ending the activities and operations of a company because both the assets and  financial  structure  are evaluated  (Ahmadu and Rob ert, 471). The court order for compulsory winding up Zed Ltd provides both the company and creditors with transparency and accountability because an independent entity, the liquidator,  is given  the task of protecting the interests of the shareholders, directors, creditors, and members. Since the court has appointed a liquidator, it shows that the creditor had enough  proof  to show that Zed Ltd truly is not able to pay all its debts. In addition, the company has in the recent past had cash flow problems. Therefore, Zed Ltd is insolvent. In the case of Niger Merchants Co. v Copper (1877) 185 ChD 557n, Jessel MR proposed that pursuing a winding-up petition for a solvent company is an abuse of the court’s process (Hicks and Goo, 609). Other such cases include Mann v Goldstein, and the sentiments of Malins VC in Cadiz Waterworks Co. v Barnett (1874) LR 19 Eq 182. Zed Ltd is unable to pay its debts; hence the creditor can apply to the court for a petition for winding-up. Section 123 provides information that can be used to substantiate whether or not a company is unable to pay its debts. The companies act provides provisions that are to be followed during liquidation as asserted by OECD (246). Although Zed Ltd was not aware of the petition filed in court by one of their creditors, the law requires the company not to  accept  any deliveries of goods for which it has not prepared any payment procedures. Also, the company  is supposed  to maintain the current status of its creditors, but it should not improve or  make  worse the situation. Nonetheless, any improvement or worsening of the situation may  lead  the directors to incur personal liability or be liable for misfeasance (Debt UK, 2008). The company has to ensure that no assets fall into the hands of creditors  because  they may be available for set off. Zed Ltd was under pressure to  pay  up its outstanding bills and debts; it sold a spare machine for ?10,000 whose  i nitial  price  was ?9,000. Moreover, the company had donated a minibus to a charity in an  attempt  to promote the company’s image. However, Zed Ltd was not aware of the petition filed against it in court. The sale of the  spare  machine and the issuance of the minibus to  charity  involve  company assets. However, the minibus  was given  to charity on 15 October 2009; creditor cannot  challenge  this  move  because it had taken  place before the petition

Education policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Education policy - Essay Example Researches (Eagle, 1989; Henderson & Berla, 1994; U.S. Department of Education, 1994; Ziegler, 1987) confirm that when families are involved in their children's education, 'children earn higher grades and receive higher scores on tests, attend school more regularly, complete more homework, demonstrate more positive attitudes and behaviours, graduate from high school at higher rates, and are more likely to enrol in higher education than students with less involved families' (Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Sandler, H.M., 1997). So that, it's so important to involve parents in educational programmes of their children as an important goal for schools. Education here plays the major role, so that the child's education is a shared responsibility of the school and the home. At school he is said to be given knowledge common for the whole class and meant for the children of particular age taking into account their level of mental, physical and social development. At home parents can help their offshoots to solve the possible problems which can emerge at school; they can also help them to come through the adaptation process to the new surrounding and new system of communication successfully. 'Outside the school, the home is the most salient source of learning, encouragement and support for a child', notices Alison Rich (Rich, A., 2001). She also stresses upon the 'parental resources' which refers to 'income level, parental education and parental employment'. This is urgent because family income can increase educational opportunities of a child greatly by providing him with a bigger number of books and educational tools. Besides this, p arents with higher level of education tend to have children who are much interested in their self-improve and realization thus giving them much motivation for their finishing high school and continuing educational steps on higher levels. On the contrary, children from unemployed families tend to be backward in education and have smaller level of motivation for studying. All these facts stress upon the fact of importance of parental participation in their children's development process, educational process in particular, to set a good example for them. There also some factors that can be a rather positive impulse for children to like school and are eager to study. This is a notion of 'parental involvement in a child's education' that 'can be crucial in developing a child's academic ability and confidence' (Rich, A., 2001). Parents can actively participate in their child's school life, taking part in 'school committees, attending sporting and social events, attending parent teacher nights, volunteering and so on' (Rich, A., 2001). Doing this they show their great involvement into their children's life that gives their offshoots a sense of responsibility for their deeds and their progress in studies. Parents can also provide a suitable home environment for children to be ready for school, and to know that in case something goes wrong with their studies they can learn at home and improve their knowledge. Psychology deals with the notion of 'psychological readiness of a child for school'. This includes all the facts that influence a young person to be ready to face and to step into a new system of

Why are UFOs still a mystery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Why are UFOs still a mystery - Essay Example There are many possible explanations as to why UFOs are still a mystery, some of which are discussed here. An unidentified flying object, UFO is â€Å"an object or light, reportedly seen in the sky, whose appearance, trajectory, and general dynamic and luminescent behavior do not readily suggest a logical, conventional explanation† (UFO). According to general belief, UFOs are spaceships, belonging to extraterrestrial life, or aliens. However, it is important to note that all unidentified objects in the sky need not necessarily belong to aliens. Many UFOs mistaken to be spaceships were actually found to be weather balloons or military airplanes. There have been many instances, however, where the appearance of a UFO could not be explained based on rational terrestrial phenomena, and it is believed that these can only be alien spacecrafts or flying saucers. Many instances of alien sightings on earth, have also been reported. For instance, a farmer and two members of the Mutual UF O Network, MUFON were reported to have seen a three-foot tall alien in Southeast US (Keen). In another event that occurred about 69 years ago over Los Angeles during the Second World War, a seemingly unidentifiable flying object was observed in the sky while the West Coast was preparing for an air raid, . Around 1,400 shells were fired at it. Yet, it managed to remain in flight â€Å"despite an intense artillery barrage that lasted 25 minutes† (Linkhorn). This incident was soon forgotten and was later revived as a â€Å"possible UFO event (Linkhorn). Describing the event and the UFO observed then, Bruce Maccabee, a UFO researcher states, â€Å"The technology goes beyond what we have† (qtd. in Linkhorn). Due to technological as well as intellectual limitations, the presence of extra terrestrial life and flying saucers will always remain a mystery. Nevertheless, the UFO sightings on earth do need further investigations to ascertain whether or not they belong to alien be ings. In spite of video and photographic proofs, apart from eye witnesses, UFOs still remain a mystery. The possible reasons as to why UFOs are still a mystery could be the absence of sound and rational evidence in favor of flying saucers. Inconsistent records, improper reporting by eyewitnesses, and governmental cover-ups may also be held responsible. From another perspective, it may also be assumed that UFOs especially flying saucers belonging to extra terrestrials do not really exist, and that they are actually fake stories perpetrated in order to hide military secrets. 1. Improper reporting and inconsistent records Improper reporting by witnesses of UFOs, hoax reports and lack of consistent records is one of the major reasons behind the prevalence of UFO mysteries. While innumerable sightings are reported worldwide, not all witnesses report a single incident with uniformity. This instigates doubt and disbelief in their existence. However, the witnesses and reporters cannot be bl amed for the lack of accurate information. Humans are bound by physical limitations. Furthermore, UFOs travel at extremely swift speeds. It is difficult to assimilate accurate details when confronted with a UFO sighting. Moreover, owing to the high velocities of these objects, they are reported to be seen at many different locations simultaneously. According to Peter Davenport, the executive director of the National UFO Reporting Center: It appears these things are capable of traveling at unimaginably high velocities. So a UFO that’s seen over Wenatchee can be over Florida or the Ivory Coast, I believe, certainly within minutes, and possibly

Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rising Greenhouse Gas Emissions - Coursework Example The other risks that are regarded as having more gravity include global governance failure, unsustainable population growth, and rising green house emissions (Barnett & Adger, 2003). The paper discusses the risk of increasing greenhouse emissions. Global warming comes about as result green house emissions leading to the greenhouse effect. The burning of fossil fuels and extensive clearing of forests has led to a 40% increase in the atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide from 280 to 392.6 parts per million in 2012 (CDIAC, 2012). Developing nations have been found to have higher percentages of greenhouse emissions compared to the developed countries. The increase of greenhouse gases is a result of human activities such as forest degradation and burning of fossil fuels. There is growing recognition that there are over 50 global risks are classified into five main categories: (1) geopolitical: global governance failure (2) societal: unsustainable population growth, ineffective drug policies (3) technological: critical systems failure (4) economic: chronic fiscal imbalances, major systematic financial failure (5) environmental: greenhouse gas emissions (Howel 2013:54-55). The rising green house emissions risk fall under the environmental category. The rising green house emissions are a threat to the world regarding the gravity of its consequences. Greenhouse gases consist of those gases that emit and absorb infrared radiation, excluding the radiation in near or visible spectrum (Pandey, 2007). In order of abundance they include: Water vapor, carbon (IV) oxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone, and chloro floro carbons (CFCs). The main source of green house gases is carbon dioxide. The following fuels natural gases, liquefied petroleum gas, automobile gasoline, kerosene, wood and wood waste, and coal if combusted produce a lot greenhouse gases too (Dijk et al. 2012:110-115). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is viewed to the most vital

Why are UFOs still a mystery Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Why are UFOs still a mystery - Essay Example There are many possible explanations as to why UFOs are still a mystery, some of which are discussed here. An unidentified flying object, UFO is â€Å"an object or light, reportedly seen in the sky, whose appearance, trajectory, and general dynamic and luminescent behavior do not readily suggest a logical, conventional explanation† (UFO). According to general belief, UFOs are spaceships, belonging to extraterrestrial life, or aliens. However, it is important to note that all unidentified objects in the sky need not necessarily belong to aliens. Many UFOs mistaken to be spaceships were actually found to be weather balloons or military airplanes. There have been many instances, however, where the appearance of a UFO could not be explained based on rational terrestrial phenomena, and it is believed that these can only be alien spacecrafts or flying saucers. Many instances of alien sightings on earth, have also been reported. For instance, a farmer and two members of the Mutual UF O Network, MUFON were reported to have seen a three-foot tall alien in Southeast US (Keen). In another event that occurred about 69 years ago over Los Angeles during the Second World War, a seemingly unidentifiable flying object was observed in the sky while the West Coast was preparing for an air raid, . Around 1,400 shells were fired at it. Yet, it managed to remain in flight â€Å"despite an intense artillery barrage that lasted 25 minutes† (Linkhorn). This incident was soon forgotten and was later revived as a â€Å"possible UFO event (Linkhorn). Describing the event and the UFO observed then, Bruce Maccabee, a UFO researcher states, â€Å"The technology goes beyond what we have† (qtd. in Linkhorn). Due to technological as well as intellectual limitations, the presence of extra terrestrial life and flying saucers will always remain a mystery. Nevertheless, the UFO sightings on earth do need further investigations to ascertain whether or not they belong to alien be ings. In spite of video and photographic proofs, apart from eye witnesses, UFOs still remain a mystery. The possible reasons as to why UFOs are still a mystery could be the absence of sound and rational evidence in favor of flying saucers. Inconsistent records, improper reporting by eyewitnesses, and governmental cover-ups may also be held responsible. From another perspective, it may also be assumed that UFOs especially flying saucers belonging to extra terrestrials do not really exist, and that they are actually fake stories perpetrated in order to hide military secrets. 1. Improper reporting and inconsistent records Improper reporting by witnesses of UFOs, hoax reports and lack of consistent records is one of the major reasons behind the prevalence of UFO mysteries. While innumerable sightings are reported worldwide, not all witnesses report a single incident with uniformity. This instigates doubt and disbelief in their existence. However, the witnesses and reporters cannot be bl amed for the lack of accurate information. Humans are bound by physical limitations. Furthermore, UFOs travel at extremely swift speeds. It is difficult to assimilate accurate details when confronted with a UFO sighting. Moreover, owing to the high velocities of these objects, they are reported to be seen at many different locations simultaneously. According to Peter Davenport, the executive director of the National UFO Reporting Center: It appears these things are capable of traveling at unimaginably high velocities. So a UFO that’s seen over Wenatchee can be over Florida or the Ivory Coast, I believe, certainly within minutes, and possibly

How motivate the second language learner Essay Example for Free

How motivate the second language learner Essay The students are always motivated, and when we talk about motivation, it refer to student`s efforts to learn. Positively motivated students are more pleasant to learn, prepare more carefully for class, participate more actively and achieve more than negatively motivated students. Teachers should recognize that to improve motivation they will be dealing with cognitive, affective, social and perhaps even psychomotor variables. These recommendations are being offered as positive suggestion for improving student achievement motivation and also some thing which should not happen to participating students if high level of motivation is to be maintained. First, we should clarify for the student what is the goal of the course and what they have to do to achieve these goals. For reach this goal we should assist them. Give them feedback, and summarize important content of each class. We must have review sessions to help the student to recover what they learned. Use the example, that is, use a material which is related to what they know, in fact we should have a work which is creative and these activities should be purposeful. Give an exam and take them a test to motivate the student to have a better work. These are the cognitive works which we can do for motivate the students. In addition there is some affective variable which the teachers can done to motivate the students. They should avoid the practices which produce or continued anxity. A positive attitude toward the speakers, class and the teacher of the second language improve the motivation of language learner. Know the needs of students to achieve in some area. The teacher must be able to give reward for good work and punish for poor work if it is necessary. Use audio-visual aids whenever possible within reason. Plan for activities during the term. give them assignment to improve their proficiency. When applying a concepts use context which interesting the students Also there is some instruction to not be done in order to keep the student motivated. The student should not be made to suffer a lose of self-esteem and not be in a discomfort position like sit for a long time or cant hear what is said in the front of class. Or not asked them to take a test of what they don’t know or have an incomprehensible question. And should not be in inferior groups, or even ask them to be in a group of students who are superior learners. In conclusion to meet student needs, the teacher needs to make a commitment to themselves and to each student, to help that student grow. The purpose of teaching is growing the students knowledge which is be done by improving a motivation. If the teacher be aware of students need an the position of the class he/she can improve the level of the students` motivations and as a result their knowledge will be grow and language learning will happened as good as possible.

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol

Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Benefit Payments to People who Misuse Alcohol Introduction Government policies and assistance for people who misuse alcohol raise controversial issues for legislators, policymakers and practitioners alike. Goodman (2007) highlights that government policy adopts both a ‘carrot and ‘stick approach. While individuals who misuse substances are encouraged to seek treatment, there is also the threat that for those who choose not to engage in programmes, they run the risk of being targeted if they continue in their addiction. Thus those whose alcohol addiction has caused them to become involved in criminal/illegal activities and who refuse to engage with alcohol interventions face agencies using enforcement and prosecution if they continue with their behaviours. Harm caused by alcohol is Scotlands biggest health challenge. Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action was published to address Scotlands  £2.25 billion alcohol misuse problem. The governments focus is on reducing costs, recovery and making sure that people who need help are identified sooner and directed towards the right services (Scottish Government, 2009). In line with this, there have been significant changes in welfare policies for people who misuse alcohol. There is no clear of the number of people with drug and alcohol problems receiving social work interventions. Research is usually based on specialised practice teams, for example, teams working with children and families. Research suggests that approximately 25 per cent of children on child protection registers involve parental alcohol and or drug use. (Advisory Council on the Misuse of drugs (ACMD) 2003) while Hayden (2004) points out that higher estimates have been found among children and families services more broadly. Further research highlights that drug and alcohol misuse is prevalent with the many groups of people social workers often work with, for example, 44 per cent of people with mental ill health use substances in harmful or hazardous ways (Weaver et al, 2003) and among young people aged 14-15, research has shown that drinking alcohol is a regular occurrence (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). Gender is also an important area in the field of substance misuse with rese arch showing that it is often thought for it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man (Sandmaier, 1992). It would appear that the experience of alcohol abuse may be different for a man and a woman. My interest in addictions developed whilst on placement with a voluntary organisation working with young people involved with offending and/or anti social behaviour. The placement demonstrated the increase in the extent to which drug and alcohol use influences the involvement of young people in offending (Rutter et al, 1998). An opportunity whilst on a mental health placement to work with a woman experiencing severe emotional, behavioural and financial difficulties who was alcohol dependent alerted me to the profound effects of addiction, the effect of proposed policy changes and to some of the difficulties experienced whilst working with this client group. By 2009, the harm caused by alcohol and the cost to UK society had become a topical debate. Current downturns in the UK economic climate coupled with large number of economically inactive individuals and an increase in worklessness created much cause for concern. It was decided to focus this study on alcohol dependent service users in light of the new legislation in the UK which aimed to support individuals with health difficulties in getting back to work. Aims of the Research This research aim is to explore the experiences and perceptions of front line workers regarding the implication of the new Employment and Support Allowance for people who misuse alcohol and the implications this has for social work practice and will broadly cover issues such as: What difference, if any, has the introduction of the new Employment and Support Allowance made to work carried out with alcohol dependent service users? Should the implementation of this Allowance be subject to specific conditions? What is the experiences of working with alcohol dependent service users? Outline of the dissertation A review of the relevant literature is presented in chapter two in order to set the study in its legal, political and practice context. The approach and methods used to collect the data will be explored in chapter three. Chapter four presents and discusses the findings and chapter five presents the final analysis, draws some conclusions and makes some suggestions for future practice and research. All names including the name of the organisation in which the research is based have been changed in accordance with confidentiality agreements. Chapter 1 Literature Review INTRODUCTION This literature review is divided into four sections. Section one addresses, understandings of alcohol abuse. Political responses to alcohol abuse is the focus of section two. Section three explores the reasons for change and section four discusses practice issues, challenges and dilemmas. The terms alcohol addiction, alcoholism, and alcohol dependence have the same meaning. No one term is more serious than the other. Different terms have evolved over the years to overcome the negative stigma of addiction. Some people are not addicted to drugs or alcohol, but abuse them. The American Psychiatric Association (DSM-IV) uses specific criteria over a 12 month period to differentiate between dependence and abuse. If an individual fulfils the criteria for substance dependency then a diagnosis of substance abuse does not apply (Petersen McBride, 2002). For the purpose of this research, the term alcohol abuse will be used to describe individuals who abuse alcohol as well as those who are categorised as alcohol dependent. SECTION 1 Understandings of alcohol abuse The use of alcohol is long standing within Western culture. As the research has a focus on alcohol abuse, consideration must be given to the reasons why such a growth in excessive drinking emerged. The social changes stemming from the industrial revolution are therefore significant. Previous to these, ideas centred on the view that human beings were thought to be rational and exercised free will in relation to self enjoyment. Individuals were seen to exercise choice; â€Å"Drunkenness was a choice, albeit a sinful one, which some individuals made.† (Levine, 1978, p146) The movement of people from rural to urban areas because of the need for organised labour together with the growth in population meant that there were significantly high concentrations of people. Social problems emerged on an exceptional scale with excessive alcohol consumption and related safety at work issues causing great public concern. Problems relating to alcohol abuse thus became more socially significant. Many theories exist in relation to understanding the causes of alcohol abuse. Early explanations to problems with substance misuse focused on moral issues and the idea that alcohol consumption and ungodliness were linked. Individuals who had problems with drink were viewed as being ‘weak willed or ‘sinful with ‘treatment focusing on punishment or religious conversion (Petersen McBride, 2002, p34*). During the nineteenth century, scientific explanations began to emerge in relation to understanding the spread of excessive drinking behaviour in society; this was the first time that the idea of alcoholism as a disease was considered (Collins, 1990). Applying such a medical analysis allowed for a new awareness, understanding and even sympathetic attitude towards alcohol consumption and its related problems. Pressure on the State to ensure that alcoholism was recognised as a disease which required specific medical attention was now evident. Petersen McBride (2002) highlight that substance use is different from dependence or addiction. When a person tries a substance once or for the first few times, it is seen as ‘experimental. Substance misuse can also be ‘recreational meaning a person may misuse a substance, for example, alcohol, occasionally or on a social basis. The individual is seen as ‘dependent if they have developed a dependent pattern on a substance and misuse it continually. Critics argue that the disease approach focuses the attention only on the dependent problem drinker, the drinker who is experiencing severe physical and social consequences. Problems can occur at any of these stages with different interventions available, for example, the ‘disease model supports the argument for total abstinence and is broadly supported by Alcoholics Anonymous. However this model will not work for everyone. Alternatively, models which focus on harm reduction through controlled drinking, for example , the ‘wheel of change model, are also accepted within drug and alcohol services (Goodman, 2007). Difficulties arise when categorising individuals and in relation to the language used; for example what constitutes recreational use? What is the difference between dependence and addiction? The language used within alcohol literature varies greatly. It is possible for someone to be in all three stages at once; for example someone who is dependent on alcohol may recreationally misuse cannabis. There appears to be a move away from socially constructed terms such as addiction, with research highlighting that terms such as ‘addict or ‘alcoholic carry with them a negative connation and are powerful labels. Goodman (2007) points out that it is better to call a person drug dependent, where the dependency is the compulsion to keep taking drugs. There is no one clear definition of alcohol abuse as a disease. Kessel Walton (1989) highlight that ‘alcoholism is a difficult subject to study and alcoholism is a term with multiple and sometimes conflicting definitions. Defining what constitutes an ‘alcoholic and what constitutes a ‘non-alcoholic is difficult. Collins (1990) highlights that; â€Å"It is now accepted that problem drinking exists on a continuum, with normal or non-problem drinking at one end and severe dependence at the other† (Collins, 1990, p49*) Developments in research into dependency have led to risk factors such as stress, social environment, emotional health, genetic predisposition, age, and gender being identified. For example, studies have shown that children born from alcohol dependent parents who are adopted into families with no dependency issues are at greater risk of becoming alcohol dependent than the rest of the population. This would suggest that there is some genetic predisposition to alcohol dependence. Children born and raised by alcohol dependent parents have an even greater rate of becoming alcohol dependent, although here learnt behaviour may also be a factor (ref). Psychological theories such as Social Learning Theory relate behaviour to processes that take place within the individuals mind rather than the physical structure of the brain. Behaviour is believed to be conditioned by the expectations of the individual in carrying out a particular action, for example, immediate short term effects of alcohol can create feelings of enjoyment or eliminate unpleasant withdrawals. In the long term the advantages of stopping may be less rewarding than the short term gratification of prolonged misuse. Certain studies question the idea of rewarded behaviour and that addiction is a consequence. Chein (1964) found that when normal subjects were given narcotics, although they found the experience pleasurable, they did not become compulsive drug users, suggesting that drugs are not inherently rewarding as Social Learning Theory purports. Furthermore, it was found that a percentage of people who developed dependencies became dependent anyway despite having found the initial drug experience unpleasant. Regardless of these concerns, the conditioning model is well supported and highlights once again that addictive behavior is complex and difficult to place into a single model. Social Learning theory is helpful in explaining the differences in social attitudes to alcohol abuse in women. Sandmaier (1992) surveyed attitudes towards alcohol abuse among four hundred women and men of varying socioeconomic classes, ethnicity and age in the United States and found that the majority thought it to be worse for a woman to be drunk than a man. Labelling someone as an ‘alcoholic can be stigmatising and affect an individuals self-efficacy and self-esteem (Goodman, 2007). Attitudes towards drinking are not homogeneous, however the stigma attached to female alcohol abuse significantly shapes the experience, rendering it different from the experience of a man. Alcohol abuse for women threatens societys formed image about women being good mothers or good wives. Problem drinking often goes undetected amongst women due to a fear of condemnation by society. Women experiencing alcohol problems can be viewed as ‘repulsive and disgraceful. Such cultural judgments can therefore adversely affect women seeking help (Sandmaier, 1992, p8). Theories of personality are located somewhere between the biological and psychological with suggestions that certain types of people will experience problems with alcohol dependency. The term ‘addictive personality is sometimes used but critics have questioned this, concluding that there is no one type of personality more likely to abuse substances or develop substance dependency (Nathan, 1988). What appears to be more accurate is that specific personality traits have been linked to substance misuse, for example, sensation seeking has been identified as a personality trait that may be common in those who choose to abuse substances (Zuckerman, 1979). Two main schools of thought appear to be evident in relation to understanding alcohol abuse; the biological standpoint and a more psychosocial belief structure. It is important to understand that theories provide useful contributions to understanding substance dependence but that no integrated theory exists. â€Å"As there is no one substance use experience and no one encompassing theory, there can be no one specific response.† (Petersen McBride, 2002, p36) What looks apparent is that society, for many years, has had an ambivalent attitude towards alcohol consumption. Confusion of attitudes inevitably result from shifts among policy makers in line with changes in dominant viewpoints. Predominant medical understandings of alcohol abuse which consider ‘alcoholism as a disease justify state intervention such as help through health care to address the damage caused to the body. Whatever the reasons behind substance abuse and dependency, research has shown there to be a huge cost, both financially and to human life. SECTION 2 Political responses to alcohol abuse In order to explore the States approach to tackling alcohol abuse, ideas around welfare are significant. As a result of the development of ‘alcoholism being recognised as a disease which requires treatment, distinguishable welfare needs have been identified. In reviewing ideas around welfare, the ‘welfare state in the UK differed from previous schemes of poverty relief due to its relatively universal coverage. The Social Insurance and Allied Services Report (1942) (the Beveridge Report) provided the proposals which allowed for the creation of the welfare state. The idea was to provide universal benefits to all and to address issues such as unemployment, poverty and disease. Critics argued that the creation of a ‘welfare state under Beveridges original proposal was excessively expensive, could not be financially maintained after the post war boom period and would create an unwillingness to work. Since 1979, reforms have been evident across all government sectors with more of an emphasis being placed on the responsibility of the individual. The Social Security Act (1986) brought about major structural changes to the social security system. In relation to benefits, means testing and compulsory conditions to specific benefits were established. For example, invalidity benefit for those who were unable to work due to ill health, which included alcohol dependent service users, was changed to incapacity benefit requiring all but the severely disabled, below pension age, to become job seekers. This brought about a new culture towards welfare which the ‘New Labour government elected in the 1997 election were quick to embrace. Alcock et al (2008) highlight that in analysing current political attitudes, an account of social policy now is an account of the shape it has been given by the New Labour Government in power. The Government believes that paid work has many rewards, for example, it increases independence, health and well being. The government wants to provide the opportunity for as many people as possible to access employment and share such rewards. Employment policies occupy a central but controversial place in debates about the future of welfare. Welfare-to work programmes for those who are able to work have been introduced in an attempt to move away from the ‘old passive benefit system (Alcock et al, 2008, p342). Developments have seen groups that had previously not been expected to find paid work, for example, people with disabilities, now being include d in this approach. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) which applies to England, Wales and Scotland sets out the framework necessary for the future abolition of Income Support, and the movement of claimants of that benefit to Jobseekers Allowance with differing degrees of conditionality, or to Employment and Support Allowance. The Act provides for those who have problems with alcohol to be directed to make, and comply with, a rehabilitation plan. Concern about the negative consequences of alcohol abuse has reached a significantly high point on the current political agenda. At a national level the problems associated with alcohol abuse is recognised as a priority by the Government. Local governments have developed their own frameworks for addressing alcohol related harm, for example, ‘Changing Scotlands Relationship with Alcohol: A Framework for Action (Scottish Government, 2009). The role alcohol plays in the UKs economy can be both positive and negative. There are wide-reaching economic benefits derived from alcohol and alcohol consumption such as the provision of employment and tax revenues. The total value of the UK drinks market exceeds  £30 billion. The justification for alcohol excise duties ensures that the consumer directly contributes to any costs that alcohol consumption imposes on society as alcoholic drink is subject to both excise and VAT. Revenue for the Exchequer is substantial and has been increasing for the last 30 years. The alcoholic drinks industry reports to generate approximately one million jobs across the whole supply chain. The British Beer and Pub Association reports that there are over one million people employed in hotels, restaurants, pubs and clubs (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2008). It is evident that alcohol plays an important role in the success of certain parts of industry in UK society. In relation to the harm caused by alcohol in Scotland, there were over 40,000 hospital admissions in 2007-8 due to alcohol related illness and injury and deaths related to alcohol have more than doubled in the last 15 years. Rates of liver cirrhosis in Scotland are growing faster than anywhere else in the world and life expectancy in some parts of Scotland has fallen significantly short of life expectancy elsewhere. Research suggests that alcohol plays a significant part in these inequalities (Scottish Government, 2009). Research has shown that drinking alcohol in Scotland is a common occurrence for the majority of young people between the ages of 12 and 15 and that the problem with underage drinking is rising (Institute of Alcohol Studies, 2009). If people are drinking at a younger age they are at greater risk of developing dependencies, experiencing health difficulties or becoming economically inactive, all of which will have a detrimental effect on the economy. To address the problem of underage drinking initiatives and proposals are ongoing. In 2008, certain councils piloted local bans on under-21s using off-licenses. Results indicated that the level of assaults, vandalism and general complaints about young people fell significantly. These pilots were viewed successfully but critics argue that governments need to focus on wider issues such as poverty in order to change Scotlands attitude to alcohol (The Times, 2008). The regulation of the sale of alcohol has a long history in UK society. Whilst the minimum age of eighteen years old to purchase alcohol has remained the same, the variety of outlets licensed to sell alcohol and the opening times of these has changed dramatically. Tensions exist for government in relation to the deregulation of alcohol along with the wider availability of it and concerns about Scotlands problematic relationship with alcohol. Current government policy appears to be tailored towards the health benefits of reducing alcohol consumption and dependency and addressing the detrimental effects on health services and other related social problems. This appears to be the Governments focus regardless of the opportunity to raise substantial revenue through the taxation of alcohol. Such changes in political attitudes towards alcohol abuse have brought about firmer regulations governing the sale and possession of alcohol, for example, The Licensing (Scotland) Act 2005 represents th e biggest changes to the Licensing System in Scotland in over thirty years. The Act increases responsibility for those who are involved in the sale of alcohol and places restrictions on drinks promotions, for example, Happy Hours and two-for-one promotions can no longer be used by licensed premises. Recent reforms relate to the Scottish Governments introduction of the Alcohol Bill. This Bill proposes a number of measures to tackle alcohol-related harm including a 40 pence per unit minimum price (Scottish Government, 2009). However critics argue that pricing measures will not tackle the underlying reasons why people drink harmfully. Changes in regulations have came about to address issues such as public disorder and underage drinking as alcohol abuse is significantly linked to these. Law and order and health are just some of many Government departments which are affected by alcohol-related harm. The total cost to UK society is vast. The National Social Marketing Centre in 2007 estimated a cost  £55.1 billion. This estimate was composed of  £21 billion cost to individuals and families/households,  £2.8 billion cost to public health and care services,  £2.1 billion cost to the Criminal Justice System, Education and Social Services,  £7.3 billion cost to employers (includes days lost to affects of alcohol abuse) and  £21.9 billion in human cost (reduced quality of life adjusted years) (House of Commons, 2009). The increasing cost of alcohol abuse and related concerns are therefore key considerations for government. SECTION 3 Need for change? During this time of economic recession, the government is paying significant attention to welfare reform. Government publications such as Raising Expectations and Increasing Support: Reforming Welfare for the Future (2008) detail plans for the future as part of New Labours vision for a personalised welfare state. There appears to be a number of reasons why the government wants to increase employment levels, helping to explain why the governments focus has been on welfare reforms. The rate of worklessness, that is, those detached from the labour market, for example, alcohol-dependent and economically inactive individuals is significant. The Office for National Statistics (2009) reported that the number of working-age people in workless households in April-June 2009 reached 4.8 million. This was a rise of 500,000 from the previous year. The number of workless households with children reached 1.9 million, highlighting a rise of 170,000. The percentage of households in which no adults worked also increased by 1.1 percentage points from the previous year. These s reflect the highest rates since 1999 and the highest year-on-year increase since 1997. Increasing the number of economically active in society is crucial for government as they fund the economically dependent. Worklessness is linked to poor health and poverty and both poverty and worklessness are intergenerational; a working household is not only less likely to be in poverty, but also children living in the household are less likely to be in poverty as adults (Centre for Longitudinal Studies, 2007). Some argue that benefit payments accompanied with weak or no work expectations trap the very people they are supposed to help. Worklessness and the increasing cost of alcohol abuse are therefore key considerations for current government and help to explain reasons for change. Recognition that the number of people over state pension age has exceeded the number of children has raised government concerns. The dilemma of an ageing population has caused alarm for both public and private sectors, for example, concerns relate to pensions, the size of the workforce and the capacities of the health and social services. Alcock et al (2008) point out: â€Å"For governments, high rates of employment boost tax revenues, reduce spending on social security benefits and make it easier to fund other social policies and meet the anticipated costs of an aging population† (Alcock et al., 2008, p.311). The Department for Work and Pensions (DWP) points out that the new Employment and Support Allowance focuses on enabling disabled people and individuals with a health condition to engage in appropriate work, if they are able. The government has indicated that over 2.6 million people depend on incapacity benefits in the UK and that nine out of ten new claimants say that they want to return to work. The government cites this as one of the reasons why change has occurred (DWP, 2008). The idea that alcohol dependent service users are required to find suitable work raises questions about the availability, types of jobs and the level of pay required to help families out of poverty. Alcoholism is seen to have both direct and indirect effects on earnings and employment. Productivity and reliability in the labour market can be affected by the physical and mental health problems linked with alcohol dependency. That is, sickness, hangover or late arrivals are work characteristics that lead to reduced reliability and productivity. Indirect effects relate to a possible lack of education if a dependency has prevented an individual from completing or advancing at school. This possible lack of education could lead to lower wages and a limited selection of jobs. Difficulties in maintaining employment may also be experienced by individuals who are alcohol dependent, as reduced reliability leads to job loss and decreased employability. Consequently the lack of work experience ca n lead to lower wages and earnings (MacPherson, 1998). However, having someone in work does not necessarily mean the household will not be poor; thus, debates continue in relation to the role that employment policies play in reducing poverty. The new Employment and Support Allowance places obligations upon disabled people, including alcohol dependent individuals judged to be capable of work. Creating ideas that centre on having norms which is to be in full time paid work is perhaps stigmatising and disadvantaging to those people whose capabilities mean they have to work less or at a slower rate. Critics would argue that the new system will make it difficult for individuals to refuse a job if they consider it beneath their dignity, thus raising questions about the value of autonomy in our society. Increasing the degree of conditionality in the benefit system could perhaps add strength to the argument that too often ‘poor people can be treated as though they have no right to pursue a career of their choice, how to allocate time between family responsibilities or work outside their home or how to meet their family responsibilities. Some would argue that ‘poor people do not receive the same minimum respect as other citizens (Young, 2002). SECTION 4 Practice issues, challenges and dilemmas Some people with disabilities need extra resources, equipment or personal care to function independently and/or benefit from welfare-to-work government policies. In relation to people who misuse alcohol and claim Employment and Support Allowance on the grounds of incapacity, this section will examine some of the current practice issues and the main challenges and dilemmas that can arise. Many people with substance misuse issues appear to lack serious motivation to change behaviour that could be described as self-destructive. In relation to what works to motivate people to change, research has shown that scare tactics and confronting individuals are likely to lead to a defensive reaction, whilst labeling an individual as an ‘alcoholic or ‘addict is unhelpful and does not support the person to change (Goodman, 2007). Setting goals is important, but for any assistance to be successful, such goals must be a shared aspiration between the individual and worker. How successful the new system will be in helping people who misuse alcohol return to work will perhaps be more related to how well it works with individuals in assessing what they are capable of and how effective it is in assessing what help and support service users need to manage their condition, rather than the increasing conditionality and penalties. The Welfare Reform Act (2009) gives Job Centre advisers the power to assess individuals for alcohol problems and to force those with a dependency to undergo treatment. Individuals who refuse will lose benefits. Critics argue that job Centre advisers do not have the training for this role, and that specialised drug and alcohol professionals would need to carry out such assessments. There is also concern whether drug and alcohol services have the resources to deal with the increased number of perhaps, involuntary clients. The charity Alcohol Concern estimates that only one in 18 individuals who have an alcohol dependency can to access treatment (Hunter, 2009). The focus on what works best with alcohol and drug problems is of great importance. Challenges arise from frustrations felt by workers seeing people with alcohol or drug problems repeatedly in and out of the ‘revolving door of services. Attempting to change a long term pattern of drinking is extremely difficult, with research showing that several or more attempts can be required. Petersen and McBride (2002) highlighted that: â€Å"The inability to stop using drugs and especially the inability to avoid returning to use are at the heart of what we mean by addiction. In this respect, the problem of relapse is one of the defining features of the addictive disorders† (Petersen and McBride, 2002, p189) If relapse is a defining feature of the addictive disorder, how do welfare changes which make more condition and create more complex systems incorporate this known feature of the addiction cycle? Dilemmas arise in relation to the new system and the lack of sensitivity to the particular conditions such as alcohol abuse with its relapse and periodic ‘down periods. Critics point out that an individuals alcohol dependency might be an indication that he or she is struggling to cope and that removing benefits could have detrimental effects. Removing or reducing alcohol dependent service users benefits could create more strain in their lives and make their alcohol issues worse. This, in turn, would be less likely to help individuals in getting back to work, and therefore the new system would have achieved the opposite of its intended purpose. How individuals would